Section: 1 Introduction
It is well established that literacy levels in young people are at a low point. Decoding words, understanding phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension are in decline or at least stalling, whereas societies visual literacy is growing partially due to the exponential growth of ambient advertising.
It is not for me to make a judgement on this shift, however the two different codices offer different types of intelligences, one visual, and one linguistic, there is room for and cross over in both.
This paper is an attempt at uncovering some online practices that I propose utilise the age old lineages of the visual comic and cartoon, which can help us better understand how to create and learn through interaction enabling technologies such as those available today. As a secondary theme I will be looking at the potential for new media practices (I use the label to cover a range of disciplines from design to fine arts in the digital realm) to encourage a different type of educational dialogue between student and tutor, a dialogue which could be useful in developing student confidence and thus re-engage them in academic enquiry.
The idea for this paper was instigated 3years ago by some feedback that I received from secondary school teachers specialising in troubled children and “slow learners” about my Masters of Design project, these teachers were of the opinion that works such as my RedRidingHood (1) animation could energise their student’s curiosity and reflective thinking.
At this point it should be made clear that I am primarily a practioner, I teach visual communication students at undergraduate level (2), who are in the main between the ages of 18-30. They are taught different types of media and methods - generally I help the students produce work that uses, interprets and subverts the symbols and signs of contemporary culture. I am not an expert educationalist and have not worked at length with students who have formal learning disabilities. What I do have is a passion and insight as a practioner to promote interactive practices, the value in the act of creating them, as well as an associated interest in what interactive forms mean in the wider cultural context.
The examples in the links for this paper have been devised with these “slow learners” in mind, but I would like to add not exclusively, as I see the applications of the media expanding towards tertiary and graduate education.
Section: 2 Creating Motivations
Slow learners can hold a variety of issues that need to be addressed: problems with language development, with cultural issues or with motivation. The generally held observation when working with students, who are disaffected or intimidated by the media, is that high interest, low vocabulary reading materials (that are meaningful to the interests, life experience, and self-identified ‘needs’ of the reader) are solid methods to promote engagement. Too easily are such students considered or mislabelled as underachievers in school and are grouped and generalized into the classification of being “slow learners”. An alternative view is that such individuals should be regarded as unique sets of problems (and strengths) and thus no one-education model or indeed one set of materials can cover ‘all’.
I see an interesting link with such problems and one of the virtues found within interactive media. The idea that: (such individuals) should be regarded as unique sets of problems (and strengths) and as such no one-education model or indeed one set of materials can cover “all”. Echoes the arguments voiced around the problems incurred when a traditional literary critique is attempted on dynamic and interactive texts. The problem with interactive forms is that reading and analysis no longer come from the one master text or artefact and is nearer to what Umberto Eco calls “works in movement” (3). Multiple readings are required to get an adequate sense of the complete experience and all the permutations of said experience may never be uncovered. There may be no human author to interview; the audience may be entirely virtual or unobservable. It is a move towards participant observation (observing the system), personal interpretation and close readings (4). Thus like the above statement, each system/artwork is a unique set of problems and strengths, requiring a different interpretative strategy.
I propose that using non-linear and interactive materials as a base to begin discussions can subtly level the playing field. As with interactive forms it is often the case that no “right” or “wrong” readings exist. As Scott Rettberg describes, when tutoring students at Richard Stockton College, he introduces them to “ reading with a strategy in mind … I encourage students to develop particular goals (e.g. to become knowledgeable about one particular character or one particular cluster of plot events)’”(5). This is a departure from traditional close reading techniques.
In this type of exchange, the role of experiencing the rules of the system, and risk taking are all given primacy, so in effect removing the gulf between the empowered expert tutor and student. The attempted reading can almost been seen as a method by which to generate diverse co-authored (via the group discussions) interpretations. Indeed practically speaking and as Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen (6) observed, tutors may even be reverted to a lower position, if unlike the students they have no first hand experience with simulations, games or online media, and would need to embark on a prior “test run” to familiarise themselves with the technical restraints and conceptual issues likely to occur, whilst all the while retaining the group-reading integrity.
The works I discuss as potential tools to kick-start educational conversations between students are tutors are chosen specifically for their ease of engagement qualities. The initially intimidating aspect of new technologies and new structural forms can be a significant and off putting problem, the ability to engage is found within the visual styles employed and the tasks asked of the reader rather than the structural complexity of the form. The simpler and more common the style (representative signs) the more familiar and welcoming it can be to a new reader.
Section: 3 Fluidity of Language
The balance between close connection of the sign vehicle and signified concept can be seen as a two contrasting axes: at the far end we can interpret with certainty (specific, denotative, deduction) to the other pole where we cannot interpret with ease due to ambiguity (vague, connotative).
In general non-pictorial icons (letters) have fixed and absolute meanings. The letterform “a” will always be understood as meaning “a”, though when combined with a “c” and “t” its forms the word “cat” referring to a furry friend. If the string is broken down the letter “a” is still recognisable, however if it is distorted by illegibility or by the method of presentation e.g. hand drawn or part of a kinetic animation, the perceived meaning moves more towards the ambiguous nature of abstracted visual marks.
Such marks are the constituent elements of an image. Broken down they are often meaningless squiggles, dots and lines. Though once fully re-constructed the image has the ability to be understood with certainty and to speak to the reader in a much more direct manner (note the adage a picture can tell a thousand words). We need very little formal education to understand pictures when they are specific (such as a photograph). Modern societies proliferation of image-based and time based communication allows for an ever more sophisticated understanding of complex images turning pictures into visual icons. The traditional opposition of text as perceived (learned) and image as received has blurred, today we often see pictorial icons with illegible text, a crossover instigated in and by contemporary culture. An example of this occurrence is the “technotext” Lexia to Perplexia by Talan Memmott, as mentioned in Jenny Weights’ paper (7)
Understanding signs in an interactive environment demands more perception/more commitment, as the structure and rules of behaviour tend not to be standardized or taught to us at a young age. Physical (onscreen movement or point and click) as well as mental action enables this accommodation, this learning. The visual signs allow a more immediate immersion, freeing up our cognitive energy to perceive the rules. The viewers enter into a kind of discourse with the expression, becoming active participants in the exchange, facilitating their own cognitive growth through trial and error. The danger with offering both dynamic content as well as an experimental or unrecognised visual style is that the user may be overwhelmed and vertigo/confusion can take over. It could be argued that the experimental interactive environments of this nature do not allow any common point s of entry and thus are elite, excluding many participants apart from the niche, masochistic or the most determined.
The choice of aesthetic representation is relevant when we discuss methods of successful immersion within interactive systems. LeDiberder brothers (8) state that a characteristic of a simulation (a type of interactive system) is that they pay great attention to detail, we can see that within the aesthetics of recent computer games (the Playstation2, X Box, Game Cube) opposed to Net based practises, there is a move towards photo-reality and virtual reality, which for many is seen as a way to improve human sensations of presence and immersiveness(9). McCloud (10) holds a different opinion, he reflects on how the simple image enables us have “universal identification”, rather than a specific reality.
“The cartoon is a vacuum into which our identity and awareness are pulled…an empty shell that we inhabit which enables us to travel in another realm” (p36). McCloud questions why we respond to the cartoon as much or more than a realistic image, and answers “amplification through simplification” (p30). Being human we can assign identities and emotion were none exist.
It seems short-sighted to see the aesthetics of interactive media as being best when photo - realistic or textual, we should open our minds (like we do allowing non-real and real “rules of behaviour”) to mixed realities, when metaphor, icon and symbol are all employed, worlds somewhere between stylised, abstract and photographic.
McCloud gives an example:
“In some comics the split is far more pronounced, the Belgian ‘clear – line’ style of Herges TinTin combines very iconic characters with unusually realistic background, this combination allows readers to mask themselves in a character and safely enter a sensually stimulating world.”(p43) (11)
I believe that the popular form of comics and their moving image sibling – cartoons, have much to give to the development of educational interactive media. Firstly they are ubiquitous, they permeate both our childhood and adult lives - shows such as The Simpson’s, Sugar Puff Girls and Ren-n-Stimpy (12), have attracted child and adult intellectual enquiry alike.
Secondly the graphic / drawn nature of the comic and cartoon inevitably add an emotional association. Like many other new media practioners I have nostalgic and fond memories of the crude hand-drawn cartoons of the 1980’s(12). This reductive, simple and basic quality was also seen within the early and now vintage computer games era (12). This human crafted element again helps to generate a sense of attachment and imagination, for often within state of the art games or 3-D rendered landscapes the lack of human mark/trace may seem daunting to a new user. I also suspect that there is something within the onscreen mark making that can promote an emotional attachment that computer generated polygons do not.
An important stylistic trait of the comic is the boldly inked line style. This strong graphicness can simultaneously make both simple recognisable shapes, normally in the portrayal of characters, and complex total images as shapes overlap or evolve.
"Mastery of any medium using minimal elements has long been considered a noble aspiration. The Art of comics is a subtractive art as it is additive and finding the balance between too much and too little is crucial to comics creators the world over." (p83) (10)
I am not advocating that the popular media usurp literary or classical media in the classroom, though I do believe in the crossover. Graphic artists such as Chris Ware (12), Daniel Clownes (12), Kelly Keda (12) and Marjane Satrapi (12) are in my opinion doing precisely this, deceiving us with simple imagery and then presenting us with sophisticated notions of what it is to exist within modern social structures. Rather the angle I would take is to highlight the popular practices, which simultaneously look alluring, familiar and easy to understand by the virtue of their associated cultural mode of communicating (mass and through television and print) but have a potential depth within their narrative or visual content. I believe such practices when used within new media technologies can produce an exciting experience both for the user, and the creator (see section 4 for examples).
Section: 4 Some Examples of Practice.
(13) http://waxebb.com/mt/site/donna/parta.htm
Section: 5 Proactive
What is it to make - to make an artefact or to make a choice?
The act of creation is widely acknowledged as an intrinsic part of our society.
Online media, or in general any rule based system offers the audience an opportunity to be proactive, to uncover and explore what it is to exist, as an individual or as part of a larger group within a set of rules. Such abilities are intrinsically rewarding. The onscreen interactive exchange has yet to become standardized, expectations from the user can still be either rewarded, thwarted or played with.
In freelance / not for profit interactive practice each entity is often a unique setting, system and ideology. This situation encourages a collaborative co-explorer relationship between student and tutor. Powerful, positive feelings are often felt when the student successfully unlocks or starts to make confident unguided decisions within the system. An onscreen action (then) re action can still be a surprise, a shock and a joy. In more advanced classes the post experiential discussions can be worked to help develop self-found opinions on social politics, hegemonies and stereotypes.
To create and design such content, we must first observe, take note, reflect on, rework, subvert, extend, reduce or add to a set of rules as your imagination sees fit. The issue of visualising and developing a high interest onscreen environment is a substantial task. Understanding the rules at play, the invisible nature of our intuitions and possibly how they come to be formed, enables a confidence building perspective. By knowing what it is to make the system (even theoretically), how to render/represent a voice, we can gain not only a different perspective towards other practioners work but also an ability to see under the skin of the work. Developing ones creativity enables us to appreciate a failed design, and also builds a sense of confidence to explore and challenge. A non-passive role can hopefully be used within the student’s educational and professional life alike.
Section: 6 Conclusions
Building visual and text based literacy skills can be a meaningful experience at any stage of our development. Learning can give you a sense of independence and confidence. The shift from texts that can be read and interpreted to visual texts that can be explored or constructed has happened. As Espen Aarseth discussed, master tropes of aporia and epiphany (14) control the progress and rhythm of the user’s investigation. Through the student’s own investigation a unique sense of how expectancies are formed can be felt. The prescribed ideas at the beginning, the revised ones as you test your expectations and have them disproved, continually loop through the entire experience. Emotions such as the joy of an unexpected surprise, fulfilment when unlocking and exploring hidden paths, as well as onscreen play sensations, and a general wonder about characterisations can all be experienced within interactive structures.
Within interactive media a distinctive (not experienced in other media) feeling of continual aporia can be felt, a feeling of confusion, this links to Stuart Moulthrop’s Interstitial ideology (15). But through the mutual confusion, after all in this teaching framework, both student and tutor sense this traditionally negative emotion, through their discussion hopefully an appreciation can be found for the interpretative space left by unresolved meaning, in this space they can hear their own interpretative voice, as this is often the authors hard coded intent.
In conclusion I would like to see this paper as a call to participate, to educators to test the experiences (simultaneously from yours and the students perspective) of one to one and group dialogue discussing the experiences and possible meanings in these interactive case studies. To practioners I say consider the aesthetic of the clear graphic line as a vehicle to present high interest / low vocabulary visual worlds.
(1) http://www.6amhoover.com/redriding/red.htm
(2) http://www.gsa.ac.uk/gsa.cfm?pid=172
(3) Eco, Umberto., The Open Work. Trans by Anna Cancogni, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1989.
(4) Examples of Close Readings:
Douglas, Jane Yellowlees., “Looking for the Close of afternoon: Four Readings.” The End of Books - Or Books Without End?: Reading Interactive Narratives, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
2000, 97-106.
Douglas, give a rich account on her attempts to read Michael Joyces’ Afternoon.
Afternoon, a story by Michael Joyce, ISBN 1-884511-01-5 (CD for Macintosh and Windows) at http://www.eastgate.com/catalog/Afternoon.html
Koskimaa's PhD thesis Digital Literature: From Text to Hypertext and Beyond - http://www.cc.jyu.fi/~koskimaa/thesisRaine
which develops critical approaches to reading hypertext through close readings of several hypertext fictions.
(5) Scott Rettberg, Games/Gaming/Simulation in a New Media (Literature) Classroom.
(6) Simon Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Practical Barriers in Using Educational Computer Games.
(7) Lexia to Perplexia by Talan Memmott cited in Cyborg Dreams: from Ergodics to Electracy
byJenny Weight
(8) LeDiberder, Alain et Frédéric., Qui a peur des jeux vidéo? Paris: Éditions La Découverte, 1993.
(9) Frasca, G., Simulation 101: Simulation versus Representation, 2001.
http://www.jacaranda.org/frasca/weblog/articles/sim1/simulation101.html
(10) McCloud, S. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art, Northampton, MA: Kitchen Sink Press Inc, 1993.
(11) http://www.tintin.com/
(12) http://waxebb.com/mt/site/donna/parta.htm
(13) http://waxebb.com/mt/site/donna/partb.htm
(14) Aarseth, E., Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature, Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1997, p91.
(15) The Interstitial Paradigm is essentially less technical /formal but more conceptual. There is a growing realisation that much of the contemporary practises and indeed the users experience of new media art / Cybertexts (such as work by http://www.jodi.org) is inherently ‘difficult’, Stuart Moulthrop has developed the term ‘Interstitial’ to describe such type of works (The World Without Cybertext: Providence RI: Keynote speech, Digital Arts and Culture conference, (2001)). Interstitial practise uses and emphasises gaps, fragmentation, and the avant-garde notions of disruption and dissonance.